With extreme weather becoming the norm, especially during summers, we have created an alphabet of extreme natural phenomena throughout history; an occasion to distinguish between human-made disasters and Acts of Gods, and reflect about climate change and how we are, historically, in unchartered territory.
D - for Drought
Droughts can have devastating effects on agriculture, increasing poverty and famine; they also strongly increase the risks of wildfires.
Droughts have always existed in nature: this ordenance from 1494 in Spain states that "at the request of the town of Cáceres, it is ordered to uphold an old ordinance by which livestock can drink from common waters and from the pastures of lords during times of drought."
Archivo General de Simancas , A petición de la villa de Cáceres, se ordena guardar una ordenanza antigua por la que los ganados pueden beber las aguas comunes y las de las dehesas de señores en tiempos de sequía.(14 Oct 1494), available here
In a slightly less pragmatic manner, in this other Spanish ordenance from about a century later (1608) the king "approves the prayers that the Duke of Escalona had requested due to drought."
Archivo Histórico de la Nobleza, El rey aprueba las rogativas que había encargado el duque de Escalona, por sequía.(5 Lug 1608), available here
However, water deficits are fast becoming the new normal. Reports from the World Bank inform us that they have increased by 233% in certain regions in the last 50 years, and they are directly linked to global warming. In Spain, where these documents come from, the past decade saw the driest period since the 1940s, with rainfall decreased by up to 75%. Since the industrial revolution, the Azores high, the centre of high atmospheric pressure that is called the "Gatekeeper of European Rainfall", has expanded as the earth has warmed. From 1850 to 1980, it was once every seven years; but data shows that after 1980 the frequency became once every four years, with forecast set to be worse and worse. In 2023, Spain's droughts ranked among the 10 most costly climate disasters in the world.
E - for Earthquake
Earthquakes
are an integral part of the way the Earth functions and is shaped -
since the beginning of time, they have scourged entire civilisations.
These are three letters about earthquakes over the centuries: from 1495
in Madrid; from 1688 in Naples; and from 1829 in Murcia and Orihuela
Archivo de la Real Chancillería de Valladolid, Pastoral of the bishop of Valladolid to contribute to the repair of the ravages of the earthquake in Murcia and Orihuela, available here
Arquivo Historico de la Nobleza, Letter from Jacinto Arcayna to the Duke of Gandia about the earthquake in Naples and about the arrival of the gifts sent by the Marquis of Carpio for the queen, available here
Arquivo de Simancas, About selling the yerba baldia that Vélez-Málaga uses to increase its income and repair the ramparts that fell with the earthquake, available here
There is also no direct causality between earthquake and climate change; HOWEVER, there are some indirect correlations and mechanisms through which climate change can influence seismic activity, that are currently being study: for example, glacial melting reducing the weight on the Earth's crust can lead to a process called isostatic rebound, where the crust slowly rises and adjusts to the decreased load, potentially triggering earthquakes. Sea level rise can also have an impact on faultlines under the ocean, possibly leading to seismic activity; the thawing of permafrost can also destabilize the ground.
F - for Fire
Wildfires have always been a natural part of Earth's ecosystems, and since humans discovered fire, arsons and accidents have provoked catastrophes that have swipped off entire cities - think of the Great Fire of Rome in 64AD, or the London fire of 1666, which destroyed 80% of the city. Over the years, the technology to fight against fire has evolved, particularly in countries that are more proned to wildfires because of their climate, such as Greece. However, climate change has pushed fires into uncharted territory. Fires are one of the most visible effects of climate change and there is a distint, clear link between climate change and fire: rising global temperatures dry out vegetation, making it more flammable; prolonged droughts, driven by altered precipitation patterns, further reduce moisture in vegetation and soil, increasing fire risk; changes in vegetation due to shifting climates create more continuous fuel for fires, while warmer temperatures lead to more thunderstorms and lightning strikes, igniting more wildfires. Extended fire seasons now give fires more time to start and spread. In turn, fires release large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming. The destruction of forests, which act as carbon sinks, exacerbates this effect. Wildfires also emit aerosols and particulate matter, influencing the climate in complex ways, and can change the Earth’s albedo, absorbing more heat.
Here are some legislative actions taken already in the 1970s in Ireland about wildfires; and the image of an arson started by protesters during the champagne riots of 1911 (The Champagne Riots of 1911 were violent protests by grape growers in France over economic hardships and fraudulent wine labeling by exacerbated protesters) - if such a fire was started today, the risks of destroying the whole area would be much much stronger.
Archives départementales de la Marne, The Champagne riots. Maison Bissinger on fire, 1911, available here
F - for Floods
Historically, flooding has posed significant risks to human settlements, with ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt enduring regular inundations due to their proximity to rivers. These events, though destructive, were often predictable and manageable. However, in recent decades, the frequency and severity of floods have intensified due to climate change. Rising global temperatures lead to more extreme weather patterns, such as heavier rainfall and melting glaciers, which overwhelm natural and man-made drainage systems. Additionally, rising sea levels further exacerbate coastal flooding, threatening millions of people worldwide and making floods increasingly unpredictable and devastating.
Here are some historical floodings from our archives:
In January 1838, an unusually cold winter greeted the inhabitants of Pest, Buda (Ofen) and Óbuda (Altofen), which was followed by a rapid warming at the beginning of March. Under the thick ice of the Danube, a huge amount of water was trying to make its way. The lower parts of Buda were already under water in January, the streets could only be navigated by boat. A temporary dam was built to protect Pest, and they also tried – unsuccessfully – to blow up the accumulated ice. The floodwater finally made its way and caused enormous damage between March 13th and 18th. This military-statistical map shows the line of the highest water level in the three cities, with the collapsed buildings marked in black. It can be seen here that the greatest damage was caused in Óbuda (Altofen), as well as in the two populous but rural suburbs of Pest, Józsefváros (Josephstadt) and Ferencváros (Franzstadt).
Budapest Főváros Levéltára (Budapest City Archives), available here
Here are a series of floods in Lithuania:
Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Žmonių minia potvynio metu. Kaunas, A crowd of people during a flood in Kauna (1920s-1940s) | Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Žmonės valtyje potvynio metu Panemunėje ties Nemuno tiltu (1926 m.), People in a boat during a flood in Panemunė near the Nemunas Bridge (1926 ca.) | Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Flood in the centre of Vilnius near The Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, (1958). Author M. Sakalauskas. |
Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Stasys Krasnauskas in the Gediminas square during spring flood. Vilnius(1957) | Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, The crossroad of K. Požela and T. Wroblewski during the flood of Neris river. Vilnius, Lithuania. 1958 Author E. Šiško. | Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Cars on the flooded street. Vilnius, Lithuania. [1960]. Author A. Poška. |
And a few interesting documents about flooding in Spain: the reports on the flood that occurred in the village of Vícar, in Almería, in October 1872, with an increase in water levels of 8 metres; the ordinance by which, in 1788, due to the flooding suffered in the city of Vallaloid, the expulsion of vagrant outsiders was ordered, the use of scarcity and need by merchants was prohibited, and looting of ruined buildings was forbidden; and the correspondence between Adolfo M. Monsanto, Guatemalan ambassador to Mexico, and José Giral, regarding the damages caused by the floods affecting his country, in 1949.
L for Landslide
Landslides are the movement of rock, soil, or debris down a slope, often triggered by natural events like heavy earthquakes, volcanic activity, and most importantly rainfall. With the most intense and frequent rainfall, climate change is also exacerbaing landslides: warming temperatures increase evaporation and lead to heavier precipitation events, which in turn lead to worse and worse landslides. These are also caused by the melting permafrost in mountainous regions, which destabilizes slopes, making them more prone to collapse. Additionally, rising sea levels and stronger storms are causing coastal erosion, which weakens cliffs and coastal slopes, increasing the risk of landslides in these areas. Finally, human constructions next to slopes, legal and illegal, makes landslides one of the most dangerous climate effect we have to deal with.
This is a landslides in the "Elise II" mine, in Merseburg, Germany, in 1918
This is the 1952 landslide in Muttenz (Switzerland). The TV news of the era reported it as such: "Above Muttenz (Basel-Land), the mountain moved. Three million cubic meters of earth started moving near Muttenz, in the Basel countryside. The landslide carved wrinkles into the roads; its waves of mud lifted entire houses, depositing them in ruins thirty meters away. The shacks of the vineyard workers were shattered like twigs. The unleashed violence of nature, always terrifying, struck the orderly and fragile works of man. Fortunately, there were no casualties, but the damage caused by the Wartenberg landslide was immense.
Another Swiss ladslides, in 1957, when "The catastrophic weather at the end of July caused significant disasters in various parts of our country: over 150,000 cubic meters of earth and rock slid down in Val-de-Travers. The railway line and the road near Noiraigue in the Neuchâtel Jura were devastated. There is also the looming threat of further landslides. These scenes were filmed ten days after the start of clearing work on the enormous landslide that has paralyzed traffic on this route between Switzerland and France. It will take a full month after the disaster for traffic to return to normal, despite the use of large-scale equipment"
The destruction of the hill in Mössingen (Germany), in 1957
P for Pollution - air and soil
Unlike common knowledge that sees pollution as a new problem brought about by consumerism and industrialisation, environmental contamination has actually been a problem since ancient history: Rome and Greece already experienced air and water pollution from urbanisation, waste disposal, and the use of fire for heating and cooking. However, this was not a phenomenon that radically altered the biosphere. With industrialisation, as factories began releasing large amounts of pollutants into the air, water, and soil, and particularly with the burning of fossil fuel, a f significant, large-scale environmental degradation started to take place, and accelerated exponentially in the 20th century with the growth of industries, extreme mass consumption, and motorisation.
These are data regarding the "fumes produced by the Riotinto mines and the damage they cause to people, agriculture, and livestock in the province of Huelva, according to observations by Juan Caballero y Sánchez", dated 1877:
A 1974 poster about the importance of "keeping the doors closed" on industrial premises:
An anti-pollution and pollution measuring systems from cockeries in France, from the early 1980s:
P for Pollution - water
Water pollution is also something experienced since ancient times - however, the Romans could solve the contamination problems through an advanced sewage systems, which was spectacular for the times and did not create permanent water damages to the rivers and coasts. Industry, and tanneries in particular, also created water contamination problems in urban landscapes, well before the industrial revolution: here is a 1495 edict of the Real Cancillería de Castilla, the Royal Chancery of Castile, "that the tanneries of Madrid be moved outside of this town, in order to prevent illnesses and water contamination". Moving towards our time, here is a map of the vulnerability of groundwater pollution in France, from 1970:
Oil spillages and oil tankers pollution are one byproduct of our modern energy system. Here is the "draft text of an international convention for the prevention of pollution from ships, 1973":
The fight against spillages has been going on for decades, but so far we have been on the losing side apparently. These are the shocking images of the Prestige oil spill, which occurred in November 2022. During a storm, this old oil tanker burst a tank, but the governments of France, Spain, and Portugal all refused to allow it to dock. In the end, the vessel sank in open waters, 210 kilometres from the coast of Galicia, spilling 60,000 tonnes of heavy fuel oil and polluting 2300 kilometers of coastline and more than one thousand beaches on the Spanish, French and Portuguese coast, as well as causing great harm to the local fishing industry. These are the pictures from the fond of photographer Jean-Marc Rama, at the Archives départementales de la Vienne:
P for Pollution - garbage
Waste management has always been a part of human activities, but it was the introduction of plastics and other non-biodegradable materials that made garbage a global problem. Overflowing landfills, oceanic "garbage patches," and the proliferation of microplastics are threatening ecosystems, human health, and biodiversity. Waste management systems struggle to keep up with the sheer volume of waste, leading to pollution of land, water, and air. Particularly since the 1970s, international efforts have focussed on reducing waste generation, improving recycling processes, and developing sustainable alternatives to harmful materials; but the challenge remains immense.
A 1968 Dutch campaign against pollution: "pollution / a matter to handle with the 13 million of us / Foundation Hygienic Care, The Hague", designed by Ben Boss.
Vervuiling / het varkentje / om met / z'n 13 miljoenen / te wassen / stichting hygiëne, den haag
"L'anti-pollution commence ici !" "The fight against pollution starts here!" (a 1973 poster)
And at this link you can listen to a very interesting audio interview to a fishing boat captain from Le Brusc, in the South of France, who observes that the sea is the most polluted place, because it also absorbs pollution from the land and the air. The fish have not yet been affected (we are talking about 1977/78), but he has noticed a decrease in births. The main cause of pollution is cleaning products dumped into the sewers, which eventually reach the sea, and the landfills that are suffocating the aquatic flora, so that fish are finding less and less food....
R for Radioactivity
Unlike previous entries, whose phenomena existed since ancient times and are exacerbated by climate change, the problem of radioactivity is extremely new, and not connected to climate change - if anything, it is a phenomenon that hinders solutions to climate change. Radioactivity as a form of pollution has been a significant environmental and public health concern only since the early 20th century, with the development and use of nuclear technology amplifying the issue. Initially, radioactivity was celebrated for its potential benefits in medicine and energy production; however, its dangers quickly became apparent, especially after events like the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. These events highlighted the devastating and long-lasting effects of radiation exposure on human health and the environment. In the 1950s and 1960s, nuclear testing by several countries, particularly in the atmosphere, spread radioactive particles worldwide, contaminating soil, water, and air, which raised global awareness and led to the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963. The 1970s saw growing opposition to nuclear power as citizens and environmental groups questioned the risks of nuclear accidents and the long-term impacts of radioactive waste. High-profile incidents, such as the Three Mile Island meltdown in 1979, the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, and later the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011, underscored the catastrophic potential of radioactive pollution, leading to more stringent safety regulations and increased calls for renewable energy alternatives. Today, the legacy of radioactive contamination persists, and managing radioactive waste and preventing nuclear accidents remain critical environmental and geopolitical challenges. Still, many argue that with correct management nuclear power is much cleaner, and less catastrophic, than carbon-based energy sources.
Here is a 1983 poster of the Committee against plutonic pollution in The Hague (Netherlands) but held at the French Archives départementales de la Manche
S for Storm
There is a well-documented connection between climate change and the frequency, intensity, and behaviour of storms. As global temperatures rise and warmer air holds more moisture, storms become more intense, with heavier rainfall. The proportion of high-intensity storms keeps rising. Rising sea levels also can amplify the effects of storm surges. Even if the strength of the storms themselves doesn't increase, higher baseline sea levels mean storm surges can penetrate further inland, causing more damage. We used to think of tornadoes and catastrophic torrential rain as something pertaining specific tropical area (in this 1863 document, the Gobierno Superior Civil forwards the communications from the political-military governors regarding the damages due to storms in various provinces of Luzon and the Visayas Islands, in the Philippines)...
...in reality, as the tragedy of Valencia has shown to everyone this week, destructive storms are more and more the new normal everywhere in the world.
German soldiers caught in a snowstorm near a truck during World War II (taken between 1939 and 1945); Vokiečių kareiviai Antrojo pasaulinio karo metu prie sunkvežimio užklupti sniego pūgos (1939–1945 m.)
Storm at sea near Palanga. January 26, 1968. Photo by B. Aleknavičius.; Audra jūroje ties Palanga. 1968 m. sausio 26 d. B. Aleknavičiaus nuotrauka
V for Volcano eruptions
Volcano eruptions are some of the most frightening and spectacular (in an apocalyptic way) extreme natural phenomena - if you ever visit the Pompei archaeological site in Italy, you will get an idea of how unexpected and destructive they could be in ancient times. Nowadays, active volcanoes are monitored and studied all over the world, and it is difficult to be caught with a major eruption out of the blue. This is the drawing of an eruption in La Palma island, approximately in 1678 (the drawing is part of the correspondence sent by the Tribunal of the Inquisition of the Canary Islands to the Council of the Supreme Inquisition, informing them about the eruption of a volcano)
While volcano eruptions may seem like the "most natural" of these extreme phenomena, even volcanoes are being disrupted by climate change. As glaciers retreat, reducing the pressure on the Earth's crust in volcanic regions, magma chambers can be potentially destablisied, increasing the likelihood of eruptions, especially in areas like Iceland or the Pacific Northwest. Interestingly though, large eruptions bring about injections of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and ash into the stratosphere, forming aerosols that reflect sunlight and cool the Earth's surface. For example, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 caused a temporary global cooling of about 0.5°C for a couple of years. We cannot however count on (nor wish for!) volcano eruptions to counteract global warming!
A to Z - from Activism to Zaangażowanie
For the last entry of this alphabet, we take a look at Climate Activism (or zaangażowanie, in Polish!) : this is a poster from 2009, made by activists from the 'People involved in Climate Camp' around the negotiations at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference. 'Deal or no deal?' was a life important question, as all the international commitments made around climate change are. The accord stipulated at the end of the conference provided for explicit emission pledges by all major economies – including, for the first time, China and other major developing countries. However, it charted no clear path toward a treaty with binding commitments : we would have to wait Paris 2014 for that, and fight is still on; we all must be Climate Activists!
Research by Anna Batzeli, Darius Bujokas, Ildikó Szerenyi, Federica Tammarazio
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copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. Please note that you are responsible for your own use, including the need to obtain other permissions e.g. with regard to publicity, privacy, or moral rights.
This object is currently in copyright and the rights holder(s) have allowed re-use for educational purposes only. You are free to use this object in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. Please note that you are responsible for your own use, including the need to obtain other permissions e.g. with regard to publicity, privacy or moral rights.
Please contact the providing institution for more information and in order to acquire additional permissions for any other uses.