With extreme weather becoming the norm, especially during summers, we have created an alphabet of extreme natural phenomena throughout history; an occasion to distinguish between human-made disasters and Acts of Gods, and reflect about climate change and how we are, historically, in unchartered territory.
D - for Drought
Droughts can have devastating effects on agriculture, increasing poverty and famine; they also strongly increase the risks of wildfires.
Droughts have always existed in nature: this ordenance from 1494 in Spain states that "at the request of the town of Cáceres, it is ordered to uphold an old ordinance by which livestock can drink from common waters and from the pastures of lords during times of drought."
Archivo General de Simancas , A petición de la villa de Cáceres, se ordena guardar una ordenanza antigua por la que los ganados pueden beber las aguas comunes y las de las dehesas de señores en tiempos de sequía.(14 Oct 1494), available here
In a slightly less pragmatic manner, in this other Spanish ordenance from about a century later (1608) the king "approves the prayers that the Duke of Escalona had requested due to drought."
|
|
Archivo Histórico de la Nobleza, El rey aprueba las rogativas que había encargado el duque de Escalona, por sequía.(5 Lug 1608), available here
However, water deficits are fast becoming the new normal. Reports from the World Bank inform us that they have increased by 233% in certain regions in the last 50 years, and they are directly linked to global warming. In Spain, where these documents come from, the past decade saw the driest period since the 1940s, with rainfall decreased by up to 75%. Since the industrial revolution, the Azores high, the centre of high atmospheric pressure that is called the "Gatekeeper of European Rainfall", has expanded as the earth has warmed. From 1850 to 1980, it was once every seven years; but data shows that after 1980 the frequency became once every four years, with forecast set to be worse and worse. In 2023, Spain's droughts ranked among the 10 most costly climate disasters in the world.
E - for Earthquake
Earthquakes
are an integral part of the way the Earth functions and is shaped -
since the beginning of time, they have scourged entire civilisations.
These are three letters about earthquakes over the centuries: from 1495
in Madrid; from 1688 in Naples; and from 1829 in Murcia and Orihuela
Archivo de la Real Chancillería de Valladolid, Pastoral of the bishop of Valladolid to contribute to the repair of the ravages of the earthquake in Murcia and Orihuela, available here
Arquivo Historico de la Nobleza, Letter from Jacinto Arcayna to the Duke of Gandia about the earthquake in Naples and about the arrival of the gifts sent by the Marquis of Carpio for the queen, available here
Arquivo de Simancas, About selling the yerba baldia that Vélez-Málaga uses to increase its income and repair the ramparts that fell with the earthquake, available here
There is also no direct causality between earthquake and climate change; HOWEVER, there are some indirect correlations and mechanisms through which climate change can influence seismic activity, that are currently being study: for example, glacial melting reducing the weight on the Earth's crust can lead to a process called isostatic rebound, where the crust slowly rises and adjusts to the decreased load, potentially triggering earthquakes. Sea level rise can also have an impact on faultlines under the ocean, possibly leading to seismic activity; the thawing of permafrost can also destabilize the ground.
F - for Fire
Wildfires have always been a natural part of Earth's ecosystems, and since humans discovered fire, arsons and accidents have provoked catastrophes that have swipped off entire cities - think of the Great Fire of Rome in 64AD, or the London fire of 1666, which destroyed 80% of the city. Over the years, the technology to fight against fire has evolved, particularly in countries that are more proned to wildfires because of their climate, such as Greece. However, climate change has pushed fires into uncharted territory. Fires are one of the most visible effects of climate change and there is a distint, clear link between climate change and fire: rising global temperatures dry out vegetation, making it more flammable; prolonged droughts, driven by altered precipitation patterns, further reduce moisture in vegetation and soil, increasing fire risk; changes in vegetation due to shifting climates create more continuous fuel for fires, while warmer temperatures lead to more thunderstorms and lightning strikes, igniting more wildfires. Extended fire seasons now give fires more time to start and spread. In turn, fires release large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming. The destruction of forests, which act as carbon sinks, exacerbates this effect. Wildfires also emit aerosols and particulate matter, influencing the climate in complex ways, and can change the Earth’s albedo, absorbing more heat.
Here are some legislative actions taken already in the 1970s in Ireland about wildfires; and the image of an arson started by protesters during the champagne riots of 1911 (The Champagne Riots of 1911 were violent protests by grape growers in France over economic hardships and fraudulent wine labeling by exacerbated protesters) - if such a fire was started today, the risks of destroying the whole area would be much much stronger.
Archives départementales de la Marne, The Champagne riots. Maison Bissinger on fire, 1911, available here
F - for Floods
Historically, flooding has posed significant risks to human settlements, with ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt enduring regular inundations due to their proximity to rivers. These events, though destructive, were often predictable and manageable. However, in recent decades, the frequency and severity of floods have intensified due to climate change. Rising global temperatures lead to more extreme weather patterns, such as heavier rainfall and melting glaciers, which overwhelm natural and man-made drainage systems. Additionally, rising sea levels further exacerbate coastal flooding, threatening millions of people worldwide and making floods increasingly unpredictable and devastating.
Here are some historical floodings from our archives:
In January 1838, an unusually cold winter greeted the inhabitants of Pest, Buda (Ofen) and Óbuda (Altofen), which was followed by a rapid warming at the beginning of March. Under the thick ice of the Danube, a huge amount of water was trying to make its way. The lower parts of Buda were already under water in January, the streets could only be navigated by boat. A temporary dam was built to protect Pest, and they also tried – unsuccessfully – to blow up the accumulated ice. The floodwater finally made its way and caused enormous damage between March 13th and 18th. This military-statistical map shows the line of the highest water level in the three cities, with the collapsed buildings marked in black. It can be seen here that the greatest damage was caused in Óbuda (Altofen), as well as in the two populous but rural suburbs of Pest, Józsefváros (Josephstadt) and Ferencváros (Franzstadt).
Budapest Főváros Levéltára (Budapest City Archives), available here
Here are a series of floods in Lithuania:
|
|
|
| Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Žmonių minia potvynio metu. Kaunas, A crowd of people during a flood in Kauna (1920s-1940s) | Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Žmonės valtyje potvynio metu Panemunėje ties Nemuno tiltu (1926 m.), People in a boat during a flood in Panemunė near the Nemunas Bridge (1926 ca.) | Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Flood in the centre of Vilnius near The Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, (1958). Author M. Sakalauskas. |
|
|
|
| Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Stasys Krasnauskas in the Gediminas square during spring flood. Vilnius(1957) | Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, The crossroad of K. Požela and T. Wroblewski during the flood of Neris river. Vilnius, Lithuania. 1958 Author E. Šiško. | Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas, Cars on the flooded street. Vilnius, Lithuania. [1960]. Author A. Poška. |
And a few interesting documents about flooding in Spain: the reports on the flood that occurred in the village of Vícar, in Almería, in October 1872, with an increase in water levels of 8 metres; the ordinance by which, in 1788, due to the flooding suffered in the city of Vallaloid, the expulsion of vagrant outsiders was ordered, the use of scarcity and need by merchants was prohibited, and looting of ruined buildings was forbidden; and the correspondence between Adolfo M. Monsanto, Guatemalan ambassador to Mexico, and José Giral, regarding the damages caused by the floods affecting his country, in 1949.
|
|
|
L for Landslide
Landslides are the movement of rock, soil, or debris down a slope, often triggered by natural events like heavy earthquakes, volcanic activity, and most importantly rainfall. With the most intense and frequent rainfall, climate change is also exacerbaing landslides: warming temperatures increase evaporation and lead to heavier precipitation events, which in turn lead to worse and worse landslides. These are also caused by the melting permafrost in mountainous regions, which destabilizes slopes, making them more prone to collapse. Additionally, rising sea levels and stronger storms are causing coastal erosion, which weakens cliffs and coastal slopes, increasing the risk of landslides in these areas. Finally, human constructions next to slopes, legal and illegal, makes landslides one of the most dangerous climate effect we have to deal with.
This is a landslides in the "Elise II" mine, in Merseburg, Germany, in 1918
This is the 1952 landslide in Muttenz (Switzerland). The TV news of the era reported it as such: "Above Muttenz (Basel-Land), the mountain moved. Three million cubic meters of earth started moving near Muttenz, in the Basel countryside. The landslide carved wrinkles into the roads; its waves of mud lifted entire houses, depositing them in ruins thirty meters away. The shacks of the vineyard workers were shattered like twigs. The unleashed violence of nature, always terrifying, struck the orderly and fragile works of man. Fortunately, there were no casualties, but the damage caused by the Wartenberg landslide was immense.
Another Swiss ladslides, in 1957, when "The catastrophic weather at the end of July caused significant disasters in various parts of our country: over 150,000 cubic meters of earth and rock slid down in Val-de-Travers. The railway line and the road near Noiraigue in the Neuchâtel Jura were devastated. There is also the looming threat of further landslides. These scenes were filmed ten days after the start of clearing work on the enormous landslide that has paralyzed traffic on this route between Switzerland and France. It will take a full month after the disaster for traffic to return to normal, despite the use of large-scale equipment"
The destruction of the hill in Mössingen (Germany), in 1957
P for Pollution - air and soil
Unlike common knowledge that sees pollution as a new problem brought about by consumerism and industrialisation, environmental contamination has actually been a problem since ancient history: Rome and Greece already experienced air and water pollution from urbanisation, waste disposal, and the use of fire for heating and cooking. However, this was not a phenomenon that radically altered the biosphere. With industrialisation, as factories began releasing large amounts of pollutants into the air, water, and soil, and particularly with the burning of fossil fuel, a f significant, large-scale environmental degradation started to take place, and accelerated exponentially in the 20th century with the growth of industries, extreme mass consumption, and motorisation.
These are data regarding the "fumes produced by the Riotinto mines and the damage they cause to people, agriculture, and livestock in the province of Huelva, according to observations by Juan Caballero y Sánchez", dated 1877:
A 1974 poster about the importance of "keeping the doors closed" on industrial premises:
An anti-pollution and pollution measuring systems from cockeries in France, from the early 1980s:
P for Pollution - water
Water pollution is also something experienced since ancient times - however, the Romans could solve the contamination problems through an advanced sewage systems, which was spectacular for the times and did not create permanent water damages to the rivers and coasts. Industry, and tanneries in particular, also created water contamination problems in urban landscapes, well before the industrial revolution: here is a 1495 edict of the Real Cancillería de Castilla, the Royal Chancery of Castile, "that the tanneries of Madrid be moved outside of this town, in order to prevent illnesses and water contamination". Moving towards our time, here is a map of the vulnerability of groundwater pollution in France, from 1970:
Oil spillages and oil tankers pollution are one byproduct of our modern energy system. Here is the "draft text of an international convention for the prevention of pollution from ships, 1973":
The fight against spillages has been going on for decades, but so far we have been on the losing side apparently. These are the shocking images of the Prestige oil spill, which occurred in November 2022. During a storm, this old oil tanker burst a tank, but the governments of France, Spain, and Portugal all refused to allow it to dock. In the end, the vessel sank in open waters, 210 kilometres from the coast of Galicia, spilling 60,000 tonnes of heavy fuel oil and polluting 2300 kilometers of coastline and more than one thousand beaches on the Spanish, French and Portuguese coast, as well as causing great harm to the local fishing industry. These are the pictures from the fond of photographer Jean-Marc Rama, at the Archives départementales de la Vienne:
P for Pollution - garbage
Waste management has always been a part of human activities, but it was the introduction of plastics and other non-biodegradable materials that made garbage a global problem. Overflowing landfills, oceanic "garbage patches," and the proliferation of microplastics are threatening ecosystems, human health, and biodiversity. Waste management systems struggle to keep up with the sheer volume of waste, leading to pollution of land, water, and air. Particularly since the 1970s, international efforts have focussed on reducing waste generation, improving recycling processes, and developing sustainable alternatives to harmful materials; but the challenge remains immense.
A 1968 Dutch campaign against pollution: "pollution / a matter to handle with the 13 million of us / Foundation Hygienic Care, The Hague", designed by Ben Boss.
Vervuiling / het varkentje / om met / z'n 13 miljoenen / te wassen / stichting hygiëne, den haag
"L'anti-pollution commence ici !" "The fight against pollution starts here!" (a 1973 poster)
And at this link you can listen to a very interesting audio interview to a fishing boat captain from Le Brusc, in the South of France, who observes that the sea is the most polluted place, because it also absorbs pollution from the land and the air. The fish have not yet been affected (we are talking about 1977/78), but he has noticed a decrease in births. The main cause of pollution is cleaning products dumped into the sewers, which eventually reach the sea, and the landfills that are suffocating the aquatic flora, so that fish are finding less and less food....
Research by Anna Batzeli, Darius Bujokas, Ildikó Szerenyi, Federica Tammarazio
Feedback is sent directly to the institution holding this material and should preferably be submitted in English or in the language of the institution, if possible. The institution will aim at getting back to you as soon as possible to help you with your request, though you might need to allow between two and four weeks for this depending on the current workload at the institution.
Please select amongst the relevant tips we can help with. If you still have questions, please do not hesitate to contact us, and we will be in touch as soon as possible.
Starting your search here will include all content available in Archives Portal Europe. Simply enter your keyword(s) and hit the search button. Wrap fixed expressions in quotation marks, e.g. “French Revolution”. Check the box to “Search each term separately” in case you are looking for documents containing at least one word, but not necessarily all keywords; this will also allow you to search for the same term in multiple languages at the same time (e.g. “French Revolution” “Révolution Française”). You can also use wildcards - find more about Research Tools here. If you would like to use more specific settings, try our Advanced search
The additional advanced search options give you the possibility to focus your search in:
When searching with multiple terms at the same time, wrap fixed expressions in quotation marks (e.g. "French Revolution"), or check the box "Search each term separately" in case you are looking for either one term of the other. This will also allow you to search for the same term in multiple languages (e.g. "French Revolution" "Révolution française"). You can also choose one of the suggestions matching your search term once you start typing.
This will only show results that include documents that have been digitised and are available online
Use this option to search only one or more keywords, rather than all of them
Select where your search terms should appear specifically inside the archival description:
You can filter results by selecting where your search terms appears specifically inside the archival description:
You can filter results by selecting where your search terms appears specifically inside the description of the archive:
Please note that this filter will only include institutions, for which a type has been provided as part of their descriptions:
Enter a start and/or end date in the format DD-MM-YYYY, i.e. 01-01-1900 for 1 January 1900. This will allow you to focus your search on a specific period of time. You can use the calendar function or type directly in the text field. The checkbox "Exact date search" concentrates the search on one specific date.
Check "View in context" to view the results in the hierarchical structure of archives.
For more details see Research Tools
Please sign in to save your searches.
A holdings guide is an overview of the collections and fonds of one archival institution.
A finding aid is a structured description of archival materials per collection or fonds up to item level.
You can filter results by selecting one or more countries of interest. You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your filter selection will appear above. Click "Clear filters" to see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results by one or more holding archival institutions. You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your filter selection will appear above. Click "Clear filters" to see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can select to view results from a specific Finding Aid, i.e., a structured description of archival materials per collection or fonds up to item level. You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your filter selection will appear above. Click "Clear filters" to see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter by type of descriptive document:
You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your filter selection will appear above. Click "Clear filters" to see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results by selecting "Fonds description" for a general overview or "Other descriptions" for item level. You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your filter
selection will appear above. Click "Clear filters" to see all results
matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results by selecting only those containing digital objects, i.e. the link to the digitised version of the archival material you are looking for. You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your filter selection will appear above. Click "Clear filters" to see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results by type of digital object you are interested in:
You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your filter selection will appear above. Click "Clear filters" to see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results based on the date of creation of the archival material (which may differ from the time period you are interested in - e.g., philosophers from the Enlightenment period reflecting on classic thinkers)
Please note that not all documents contain a machine-readable date. More information here
You can filter results based on the date of creation of the archival material (which may differ from the time period you are interested in - e.g., philosophers from the Enlightenment period reflecting on classic thinkers). This filter will only include materials with "Full dates", i.e. those that include date information available for date-based searches. You can either search for a specific date of interest or focus step by step on the time span of a century, decade, year or month. When searching for a specific date, enter the date in the format DD-MM-YYYY, i.e. 01/01/1900 for 1 January 1900, via the calendar function or by typing directly in the text field.
This filter concentrates on the earliest dates mentioned in the materials.
You can filter results based on the date of creation of the archival material (which may differ from the time period you are interested in - e.g., philosophers from the Enlightenment period reflecting on classic thinkers). This filter will only include materials with "Full dates", i.e. those that include date information available for date-based searches. You can either search for a specific date of interest or focus step by step on the time span of a century, decade, year or month. When searching for a specific date, enter the date in the format DD-MM-YYYY, i.e. 01/01/1900 for 1 January 1900, via the calendar function or by typing directly in the text field.
This filter concentrates on the latest dates mentioned in the materials.
You can filter results based on the language in which the material is written. Please note that this filter will only include materials where specific language information has been provided by the institution and is therefore in a machine-readable format. You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your selection will then be displayed above the search results (see "Search filters"). Clicking "Clear filters" will remove your selection and you will see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results by selecting one or more topics of interest. Please note that this filter will only include materials where the topic has been assigned and is therefore in a machine-readable format. Read how to assign a topic to documents on the Topics page. You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your selection will then be displayed above the search results (see "Search filters"). Clicking "Clear filters" will remove your selection and you will see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results by selecting where your search terms appears specifically inside the archival description:
You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your selection will then be displayed above the search results (see "Search filters"). Clicking "Clear filters" will remove your selection and you will see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results by type of entities:
You can filter results based on the language in which the material is written. Please note that this filter will only include materials where specific language information has been provided by the institution and is therefore in a machine-readable format. You can also combine this filter with other filters. Your selection will then be displayed above the search results (see "Search filters"). Clicking "Clear filters" will remove your selection and you will see all results matching your initial search request again.
You can filter results based on the type of holding institution. Please note that this filter will only include institutions, for which a type has been provided as part of their descriptions.
Write your message in your own language and use this drop-down menu to have your message translated into English or in the language of the institution for a swifter response. By checking this box and selecting a language you will send your original message along with the translated version
What kind of suggestion would you like to make?
This is a test area to fill out all the copyright details for Attribution Creative Commons Licence
This object is not or no longer protected by copyright and has been labelled with the Public Domain Mark. It can be used by anyone without any restrictions.
This object is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Public Domain Dedication. All possible existing rights in the content are waived, and the object can be used by anyone without any restrictions.
This object is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons - Attribution (BY) licence. You can copy, redistribute, remix, tweak, and build upon the licensed object, even
commercially, as long as you attribute the rights holder as described
in the licence.
This is a test area to fill out all the copyright details for Attribution Creative Commons Share Alike Licence
This is a test area to fill out all the copyright details for NoDerivs
This is a test area to fill out all the copyright details for NonCommercial
This object is in the public domain, but has been digitised as the outcome of a public-private partnership, where the terms of the contractual agreement limit commercial use for a certain period of time. You can copy, redistribute, remix, tweak, and build upon the object for non-commercial use only.
This object has been
identified as an Orphan Work in the country of first publication and in
line with the requirements of the national law implementing Directive
2012/28/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October
2012 on certain permitted uses of orphan works.
You are free to use this object in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. Please note that you are responsible for your own use, including the need to obtain other permissions e.g. with regard to publicity, privacy or moral rights.
This object is in the public domain, but is subject to known legal restrictions other than copyright which prevent its free re-use. Please contact the providing institution for more information.
This object is currently in copyright. Please contact the providing institution for more information and in order to acquire additional permissions for re-use.
The copyright status of this object has not been evaluated yet. Please contact the providing institution for more information.
You are free to use this object in any way that is permitted by the
copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. Please note that you are responsible for your own use, including the need to obtain other permissions e.g. with regard to publicity, privacy, or moral rights.
This object is currently in copyright and the rights holder(s) have allowed re-use for educational purposes only. You are free to use this object in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. Please note that you are responsible for your own use, including the need to obtain other permissions e.g. with regard to publicity, privacy or moral rights.
Please contact the providing institution for more information and in order to acquire additional permissions for any other uses.
This object is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons - Attribution, ShareAlike (BY-SA) licence. You can copy, redistribute, remix, tweak and build upon the licensed object, even for commercial purposes, as long as you attribute the rights holder as described in the licence, and you license your adaptations of the object under the same terms.
This object is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons - Attribution, ShareAlike (BY-SA) licence. You can copy, redistribute, remix, tweak and build upon the licensed object, even for commercial purposes, as long as you attribute the rights holder as described in the licence, and you license your adaptations of the object under the same terms.
This object is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons - Attribution, No Derivates (BY-ND) licence. You can copy and redistribute the object, even
commercially, as long as no alteration is made to the object and you attribute the rights holder as described in the licence.
If you remix, transform or build upon the object, you may not distribute the modified material.
This object is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons - Attribution, Non-Commercial (BY-NC) licence. You can copy, redistribute, remix, tweak, and build upon the licensed object for non-commercial use only and as long as you attribute the rights holder as described in the licence.
This object is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons - Attribution, Non-Commercial, ShareAlike (BY-NC-SA) licence. You can copy, redistribute, remix, tweak, and build upon the licensed object for non-commercial use only, as long as you attribute the rights
holder as described in
the licence, and as long as you license your adaptations of the object under the same
terms.
This object is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons - Attribution, Non-Commercial, No Derivates (BY-NC-ND) licence. You can copy and redistribute the object for non-commercial use only, as long as no alteration is made to the object and as long as you attribute the rights
holder as described in
the licence.
If you remix, transform or build upon the object, you may not distribute the modified material.
This object is in the public domain, but has been digitised as the outcome of a public-private partnership, where the terms of the contractual agreement limit commercial use for a certain period of time. You can copy, redistribute, remix, tweak, and build upon the object for non-commercial use only.
This object has been
identified as an Orphan Work in the country of first publication and in
line with the requirements of the national law implementing Directive
2012/28/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October
2012 on certain permitted uses of orphan works.
You are free to use this object in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. Please note that you are responsible for your own use, including the need to obtain other permissions e.g. with regard to publicity, privacy or moral rights.
This object is in the public domain, but is subject to known legal restrictions other than copyright which prevent its free re-use. Please contact the providing institution for more information.
This object is currently in copyright. Please contact the providing institution for more information and in order to acquire additional permissions for re-use.
The copyright status of this object has not been evaluated yet. Please contact the providing institution for more information.
You are free to use this object in any way that is permitted by the
copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. Please note that you are responsible for your own use, including the need to obtain other permissions e.g. with regard to publicity, privacy, or moral rights.
This object is currently in copyright and the rights holder(s) have allowed re-use for educational purposes only. You are free to use this object in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. Please note that you are responsible for your own use, including the need to obtain other permissions e.g. with regard to publicity, privacy or moral rights.
Please contact the providing institution for more information and in order to acquire additional permissions for any other uses.