XIIIe siècle
1791
Le Conseil du roi se détache progressivement de la Curia regis au cours d'un long XIIIe siècle.
Conseil d'Etat
France. Conseil du roi (12..-1791)
Règlement du 28 juin 1738, rédigé sous le chancelier d'Aguesseau en 1738, dont le commentaire, par les fils de ce dernier, conseillers d'Etat, est publié en 1786 par Jean François Tolozan, maître des requêtes et intendant du commerce : Règlement du Conseil, précédé de l'explication des différents articles compris dans chacun des chapitres..., Paris, 1786. [concerne surtout le Conseil privé mais intéresse aussi l'histoire du Conseil en général].
À partir du règne personnel de Louis XIV, le Conseil du roi comprend principalement trois conseils de gouvernement :
le Conseil d'En-haut, dont les membres portent à vie le titre de « ministres d'État », voué à la haute politique, à la diplomatie, à la conduite des opérations militaires, aux affaires intérieures les plus importantes ;
le Conseil des Dépêches, chargé des affaires intérieures du royaume ;
le Conseil royal des finances, à la tête de la politique financière et économique du royaume.
S'y ajoutent le Conseil royal de commerce créé en 1664, disparu en 1676, réapparu en 1730 mais réuni au précédent en 1787, ainsi que des conseils plus ou moins éphémères institués en fonction de l'actualité (Conseil de conscience sous les régences d'Anne d'Autriche et de Philippe d'Orléans, Conseil de religion chargé sous Louis XIV des affaires protestantes, Conseil de santé créé dans le contexte de la peste de Marseille en 1720, etc.).
Les conseils de justice et d'administration présidés par le chancelier tendent à se réduire à partir de Louis XIV au seul Conseil privé ou des Parties, ancêtre de la cour de cassation, qui exerce la justice retenue du roi. Le Conseil d'État et des finances, chargé de l'administration et du contentieux en matière financière n'est plus en réalité qu'une fiction : les nombreux arrêts simples en finances émanent dorénavant du Conseil royal des finances, des directions des finances, ou même le plus souvent échappent à toute délibération, évolution considérée comme le triomphe de « l’État de finance » sur « l’État de justice ».
Dans la France du Moyen Âge et de l'Ancien Régime, le roi gouverne par conseil. Aussi le roi et le Conseil ne peuvent-ils se concevoir l'un sans l'autre. En tant qu'organe de gouvernement, le Conseil du roi, comme le Parlement, la Chambre des comptes et l'hôtel du roi, est issu du démembrement de la Curia regis au cours d'un long XIIIe siècle. Cependant, le Conseil ne s'institutionnalise que tardivement, et ses contours sont longtemps restés éminemment flexibles.
Un règlement de l'hôtel, en date du 23 janvier 1286, institue treize « clercs de conseils », appelés tantôt à la Cour, près du monarque, tantôt au Parlement. A la fin du XIIIe siècle, le mot « Conseil » peut ainsi désigner l'ensemble des organes issus de l'ancienne Curia regis, ou le seul Conseil de gouvernement. Ce dernier est parfois désigné par l'expression Magnum Consilium ou « Grand Conseil » à partir du règne de Philippe le Bel, sans exclusive toutefois. A mesure qu’on avance dans le temps, le personnel du Conseil, du Parlement et de la Chambre des comptes tend à devenir distinct, mais les trois organismes conservent une grande porosité. À de très nombreuses reprises, des membres des deux cours souveraines sont invités à siéger au Conseil, et pendant très longtemps, les membres du Conseil ont eu leurs entrées au Parlement et à la Chambre des comptes. Ce n'est qu'en 1673 qu'un règlement déclare incompatibles la dignité de conseiller d’État et les offices de judicature, interdisant ainsi aux présidents des cours souveraines l'entrée au Conseil.
Le Conseil du roi, tout en gardant son unicité, caractéristique essentielle de son fonctionnement et de son identité, donne naissance à plusieurs sections spécialisées, correspondant à ses fonctions principales, à savoir :
- la conduite des affaires politiques les plus importantes, en petit comité, autour du monarque, ou au contraire en formation plus large - on gagne alors en solennité et en légitimité ce qu'on perd en efficacité et en discrétion ;
- la conduite de la politique financière ;
- l'exercice de la justice retenue et le suivi de la bonne marche de l'administration.
Au début du XVIe siècle, le Conseil peut se tenir en formation plénière, sous la présidence du roi ou du chancelier : c'est le « Conseil d’État ». Sa compétence est universelle. Cependant, le roi s'est toujours entouré, pour les affaires les plus sensibles et les plus importantes, d'un très petit nombre de proches conseillers. Informel par nature, ce « Conseil secret » ou « Conseil des affaires » est en quelque sorte officialisé sous le règne de François Ier, lorsque le roi décide de le réunir chaque matin, avant la messe. À partir de 1615, s'en détache à son tour le « Conseil des dépêches », en charge principalement de l'administration intérieure.
À partir du règne de Charles VII, plusieurs jours de la semaine sont consacrés aux affaires judiciaires. De ces sessions spécialisées va naître une véritable cour de justice, le Grand Conseil, dont les compétences et l'organisation sont définies par l'ordonnance du 2 août 1497. En raison de son institutionnalisation et de l’opposition du Parlement, le Grand Conseil finit par se cantonner à certaines catégories d’affaires, notamment en matière de bénéfices ecclésiastiques. Cependant, de nombreux procès continuent de remonter jusqu’au roi, sur requête ou sur évocation, de sorte que dans le courant du XVIe siècle, le Conseil accouche d'une nouvelle section spécialisée en matière judiciaire, mais où peut être évoqué tout type de contentieux, le « Conseil privé » ou « Conseil des parties ».
La direction des finances est d'abord exercée par le collège des trésoriers de France et des généraux des finances, organe informel qui s'est développé à l'extérieur du Conseil. Les réformes financières de François Ier y mettent fin, et il faut attendre 1563 pour que soit à nouveau constituée une formation spécialisée en matière financière. Ce premier Conseil des finances est supprimé en 1574, puis reconstitué en 1580. Il prend le nom de « Conseil d’État et des finances » à partir de Sully, mais il est ensuite concurrencé par le « Conseil de direction des finances » créé en 1615, comité plus restreint. Le Conseil d’État et des finances se cantonne alors au contentieux administratif et fiscal.
Sous l'Ancien Régime, le Conseil est au sommet de la vie politique du royaume. Premier organisme de décision, il est aussi une instance judiciaire et administrative par lequel le roi exerce notamment sa justice retenue. À partir de Louis XIV, on distingue nettement les conseils dits « de gouvernement », présidés par le roi et voués aux affaires les plus importantes (notamment celles relevant du domaine de la grande politique) et les « conseils de justice et d’administration » présidés par le chancelier. Le Conseil était assisté de bureaux et commissions qui se multiplient au XVIIIe s.
La majorité des décisions prises par le Conseil (plus exactement par le roi en son Conseil) prenaient la forme d’arrêts. On distingue les arrêts « simples » (rendus en principe en l’absence du roi, au cours des séances présidées par le chancelier), et les arrêts « en commandement », rendus en présence du roi.
Le Conseil du Roi, devenu conseil unique sous le nom de Conseil d’État par le règlement du 9 août 1789, fut supprimé le 27 avril 1791.
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